/FONT#0=BASL30/FONT#1=CLAR30
␈↓␈↓↓␈↓↓
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ∧πCOMPUTER CONTROLLED CARS
␈↓ ↓H

␈↓ ↓H

␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`There␈α≥have␈α≥been␈α≥a␈α≥number␈α≥of␈α≥proposals␈α≥for␈α≥automatic
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcontrol␈α>of␈α>cars.␈α>Mostly,␈α>they␈α>have␈α>involved␈α=simple
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hservo-mechanisms␈α⊗that␈α⊗sense␈α∃a␈α∃cable␈α∃buried␈α∃in␈α∃the␈α∃roadway␈α∃and
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hsome␈α∀other␈α∀mechanism␈α∀for␈α∀sensing␈α∪the␈α∪distance␈α∪of␈α∪the␈α∪car␈α∪ahead.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HSuch␈α%a␈α%scheme␈α%was␈α%studied␈α$at␈α$RCA␈α$at␈α$the␈α$instigation␈α$of
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HZworykin,␈α∪but␈α∪the␈α∪work␈α∪was␈α∪eventually␈α∪abandoned.
␈↓ ↓H

␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`In␈α≤science␈α≤fiction,␈α≤systems␈α≤in␈α≤which␈α≤a␈α≤single␈α≤computer
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcontrols␈α≥all␈α≥the␈α≥cars␈α≥in␈α≥a␈α≤wide␈α≤area␈α≤have␈α≤been␈α≤depicted␈α≤but
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hwithout␈α∪telling␈α∪how␈α∪the␈α∪system␈α∪would␈α∪actually␈α∪work.
␈↓ ↓H

␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`We␈α⊗are␈α⊗also␈α⊗proposing␈α⊗the␈α⊗computer␈α⊗control␈α∃of␈α∃cars.␈α∃Our
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hsystem␈α⊗requires␈α⊗a␈α⊗computer␈α⊗in␈α⊗the␈α⊗car␈α⊗equipped␈α⊗with␈α⊗television
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcamera␈α→input␈α→that␈α→uses␈α→the␈α→same␈α→visual␈α→input␈α_available␈α_to␈α_the
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hhuman␈α(driver.␈α'Essentially,␈α'we␈α'are␈α'proposing␈α'an␈α'automatic
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hchauffeur.␈α∪Our␈α∪goal␈α∪is␈α∪a␈α∪system␈α∪with␈α∪the␈α∪following␈α∪qualities:
␈↓ ↓H

␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`1.␈α∃The␈α∃user␈α∃enters␈α∃the␈α∃destination␈α∃with␈α∃a␈α∃keyboard,␈α∀and
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthe␈α$car␈α$drives␈α$him␈α$there.␈α#Other␈α#commands␈α#include:␈α#change
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hdestination,␈α∃stop␈α∃at␈α∃that␈α∃rest␈α∃room␈α∀or␈α∀restaurant,␈α∀go␈α∀slow,␈α∀go␈α∀at
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hemergency␈α∪speed.
␈↓ ↓H

␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`2.␈α≡The␈α≡user␈α≡need␈α≡not␈α≡be␈α≡a␈α≥driver␈α≥and␈α≥need␈α≥not␈α≥even
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Haccompany␈α⊗the␈α⊗car.␈α⊗This␈α⊗would␈α⊗permit␈α∃children,␈α∃old␈α∃people,␈α∃and
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthe␈α→blind␈α→greater␈α→personal␈α→freedom.␈α→It␈α→also␈α→permits␈α→a␈α_husband
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hto␈α∀be␈α∪driven␈α∪to␈α∪work,␈α∪then␈α∪send␈α∪the␈α∪car␈α∪home␈α∪for␈α∪his␈α∪wife's␈α∪use,
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hand␈α∃permits␈α∃her␈α∃to␈α∃send␈α∃it␈α∃back␈α∃for␈α∃him␈α∃at␈α∃the␈α∀end␈α∀of␈α∀the␈α∀day.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HThe␈α#car␈α#can␈α#be␈α"sent␈α"for␈α"servicing␈α"or␈α"to␈α"a␈α"store␈α"where␈α"a
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Htelephone-ordered␈α purchase␈α will␈α be␈α put␈α in␈α it.␈α∨If␈α∨there␈α∨is␈α∨a
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hsuitable␈α∃telephone␈α∃system,␈α∃the␈α∃car␈α∃can␈α∃deliver␈α∃a␈α∃user␈α∃to␈α∃a␈α∀place
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hwhere␈α there␈α is␈α∨no␈α∨parking,␈α∨go␈α∨away␈α∨and␈α∨park,␈α∨and␈α∨return
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hwhen␈α_summoned.␈α_Thus,␈α_the␈α_system␈α_is␈α_to␈α↔have␈α↔almost␈α↔all␈α↔of␈α↔the
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcapabilities␈α∪of␈α∪a␈α∪chauffeur.
␈↓ ↓H

␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`3.␈α_In␈α_contrast␈α_to␈α_a␈α_system␈α_based␈α_on␈α↔a␈α↔central␈α↔computer,
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthe␈α≠proposed␈α≠system␈α≠will␈α≠be␈α≠of␈α≠advantage␈α~to␈α~the␈α~first␈α~person
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hwho␈α"buys␈α"one,␈α!whether␈α!anyone␈α!else␈α!has␈α!it␈α!or␈α!not.␈α!It␈α!will
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hrequire␈α~no␈α~change␈α~in␈α~existing␈α~roads,␈α~but␈α~will␈α~be␈α→able␈α→to␈α→take
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Horders␈α~from␈α~traffic␈α→control␈α→computers␈α→when␈α→they␈α→are␈α→installed.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HWhen␈α∨freeway␈α∨lanes␈α∨can␈α∨be␈α∨dedicated␈α∨to␈α≡computer␈α≡controlled
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcars␈α≤they␈α≤will␈α≤multiply␈α≠the␈α≠capacity␈α≠of␈α≠existing␈α≠freeways␈α≠by
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hpermitting␈α#80␈α"mile␈α"per␈α"hour␈α"bumper-to-bumper␈α"traffic␈α"with
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hgreater␈α_safety␈α_than␈α_we␈α↔have␈α↔at␈α↔present.␈α↔Since␈α↔the␈α↔system␈α↔is␈α↔a
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hproduct␈α≥and␈α≥not␈α≥a␈α≥public␈α≥utility,␈α≥competition␈α≤among␈α≤suppliers
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hwill␈α∪be␈α∪possible.
␈↓ ↓H

␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`4.␈α∀A␈α∀key␈α∀goal␈α∀is␈α∀to␈α∀achieve␈α∪greater␈α∪safety␈α∪than␈α∪we␈α∪have
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hat␈α'present.␈α&A␈α&five-fold␈α&reduction␈α&in␈α&fatalities␈α&is␈α&probably
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hrequired␈α∀to␈α∀make␈α∀the␈α∀system␈α∀acceptable.␈α∀Much␈α∀better␈α∪is␈α∪possible
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hsince␈α∀humans␈α∀really␈α∀are␈α∀rather␈α∀bad␈α∀drivers,␈α∀but␈α∀complete␈α∪safety
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcannot␈α∪be␈α∪guaranteed.
␈↓ ↓H

␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`Now␈α≡we␈α≡shall␈α≡consider␈α≡the␈α≡problems␈α≡that␈α≡have␈α≥to␈α≥be
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hsolved␈α∪in␈α∪order␈α∪to␈α∪realize␈α∪the␈α∪system.
␈↓ ↓H

␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`1.␈α_Performance␈α_of␈α↔the␈α↔computer,␈α↔cameras,␈α↔and␈α↔associated
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Helectronics.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`Present␈α≠computers␈α≠seem␈α~to␈α~be␈α~fast␈α~enough␈α~and␈α~to␈α~have
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Henough␈α≠memory␈α≠for␈α≠the␈α≠job.␈α~However,␈α~commercial␈α~computers␈α~of
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthe␈α#required␈α#performance␈α#are␈α#too␈α#big.␈α"We␈α"envisage␈α"that␈α"a
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcomputer␈α→of␈α→about␈α_the␈α_power␈α_of␈α_the␈α_Digital␈α_Equipment␈α_PDP-10
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hwill␈α≠be␈α≠required.␈α≠Military␈α≠versions␈α≠of␈α≠similar␈α≠computers␈α≠have
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hvolumes␈α!of␈α!one␈α!or␈α!two␈α cubic␈α feet,␈α but␈α the␈α requirements␈α for
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hmemory␈α~and␈α→secondary␈α→storage␈α→would␈α→be␈α→difficult␈α→to␈α→meet␈α→in␈α→a
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hreasonable␈α∃volume␈α∃at␈α∃present.␈α∃However,␈α∀the␈α∀development␈α∀of␈α∀more
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcompact␈α≤computers␈α≠and␈α≠other␈α≠electronic␈α≠circuitry␈α≠is␈α≠proceeding
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hat␈α≤a␈α≤rate␈α≤that␈α≤makes␈α≤achieving␈α≤the␈α≠required␈α≠compactness␈α≠not
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthe␈α pacing␈α item.␈α Some␈α improvements␈α in␈α the␈α∨performance␈α∨and
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcompactness␈α⊗of␈α⊗television␈α⊗cameras␈α⊗is␈α⊗also␈α⊗required,␈α⊗but␈α⊗it␈α⊗is␈α∃not
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hyet␈α∪clear␈α∪what␈α∪these␈α∪requirements␈α∪are.
␈↓ ↓H

␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`2.␈α∪Cost␈α∪of␈α∪the␈α∪computer␈α∪and␈α∪other␈α∪electronics.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`At␈α≤present␈α≤prices,␈α≤a␈α≤computer␈α≠capable␈α≠of␈α≠controlling␈α≠a
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcar␈α⊗but␈α⊗containable␈α∃only␈α∃in␈α∃a␈α∃large␈α∃van␈α∃would␈α∃cost␈α∃$400,000␈α∃to
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H$800,000.␈α≥A␈α≥few␈α≥thousand␈α≥dollars␈α≥worth␈α≥of␈α≤other␈α≤electronics
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hwould␈α↔be␈α↔required.␈α↔Ten␈α↔years␈α↔should␈α↔bring␈α↔the␈α⊗cost␈α⊗down␈α⊗by␈α⊗a
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hfactor␈α of␈α ten.␈α Mass␈α∨production␈α∨would␈α∨give␈α∨another␈α∨factor␈α∨of
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthree.␈α∀This␈α∀would␈α∪permit␈α∪the␈α∪system␈α∪to␈α∪be␈α∪available␈α∪as␈α∪a␈α∪luxury
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hitem.␈α%Another␈α%five␈α%to␈α%ten␈α$years␈α$might␈α$be␈α$required␈α$before
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcomputer␈α_control␈α↔would␈α↔only␈α↔double␈α↔the␈α↔price␈α↔of␈α↔the␈α↔car.␈α↔These
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hestimates␈α∪must␈α∪be␈α∪regarded␈α∪as␈α∪guesses.
␈↓ ↓H

␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`3.␈α∪Reliability␈α∪of␈α∪the␈α∪computer␈α∪and␈α∪other␈α∪electronics.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`We␈α≠can␈α~attempt␈α~to␈α~compute␈α~the␈α~required␈α~reliability␈α~by
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hdemanding␈α_that␈α_present␈α_traffic␈α_fatalities␈α_be␈α_reduced␈α_to␈α↔a␈α↔fifth
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthe␈α_present␈α_number,␈α_i.e.␈α_to␈α_10,000␈α_per␈α↔year,␈α↔and␈α↔by␈α↔allocating
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Honly␈α→half␈α→of␈α_these␈α_fatalities␈α_to␈α_unreliability␈α_of␈α_the␈α_electronics.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HThis␈α≠further␈α≠depends␈α≠on␈α≠the␈α≠fraction␈α≠of␈α≠failures␈α~that␈α~lead␈α~to
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hfatality␈α→which␈α→can␈α→be␈α→kept␈α→quite␈α→low␈α→by␈α→having␈α_the␈α_computer
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcheck␈α~its␈α~health␈α~and␈α~that␈α~of␈α~the␈α~electronics␈α~every␈α~tenth␈α~of␈α~a
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hsecond,␈α≡giving␈α≡it␈α≥programs␈α≥for␈α≥dealing␈α≥with␈α≥partial␈α≥failures,
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hand␈α↔providing␈α↔a␈α↔"dead␈α↔man␈α↔switch"␈α↔for␈α↔stopping␈α↔the␈α↔car␈α↔if␈α⊗the
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcomputer␈α fails␈α to␈α reassure␈α it␈α every␈α tenth␈α∨second.␈α∨There␈α∨are
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hmany␈α∃possibilities␈α∃in␈α∃this␈α∀direction␈α∀and␈α∀the␈α∀expenditure␈α∀of␈α∀much
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcleverness␈α∀is␈α∀called␈α∀for.␈α∀The␈α∀reader␈α∀is␈α∀advised␈α∀against␈α∀using␈α∪his
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hunaided␈α→intuition␈α→to␈α→estimate␈α→the␈α→results.␈α→Nevertheless,␈α_present
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcomputer␈α∨failure␈α∨rates␈α≡would␈α≡not␈α≡be␈α≡acceptable␈α≡even␈α≡if␈α≡they
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hnever␈α≠led␈α≠to␈α≠accident␈α≠simply␈α≠because␈α≠of␈α≠the␈α~inconvenience.␈α~We
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hestimate␈α?␈α&that␈α?␈α%an␈α?␈α%improvement␈α?␈α%of␈α?␈α%1000␈α?␈α%in
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hmean-time-between-failures␈α↔is␈α⊗required.␈α⊗Rapid␈α⊗progress␈α⊗is␈α⊗being
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hmade␈α≡in␈α≡this␈α≡field,␈α≡and␈α≡we␈α≡expect␈α≡that␈α≥ten␈α≥to␈α≥fifteen␈α≥years
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hnormal␈α≤progress␈α≤of␈α≤the␈α≤computer␈α≤field␈α≤will␈α≠give␈α≠the␈α≠required
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hresult.
␈↓ ↓H

␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`4.␈α∪Performance␈α∪of␈α∪the␈α∪driving␈α∪programs.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`Developing␈α→the␈α→required␈α_computer␈α_programs␈α_is␈α_the␈α_most
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hdifficult␈α$of␈α$the␈α$required␈α$tasks;␈α#it␈α#will␈α#probably␈α#take␈α#the
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hlongest␈α_time;␈α_and␈α↔the␈α↔amount␈α↔of␈α↔time␈α↔required␈α↔is␈α↔very␈α↔difficult
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hto␈α↔predict.␈α↔Work␈α↔on␈α⊗computer␈α⊗control␈α⊗of␈α⊗vehicles␈α⊗has␈α⊗started␈α⊗at
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthe␈α*Stanford␈α*University␈α*Artificial␈α*Intelligence␈α*Project.␈α)An
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hexperimental␈α)vehicle␈α)has␈α)been␈α)equipped␈α)with␈α(a␈α(television
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcamera␈α→and␈α_connected␈α_to␈α_the␈α_computer␈α_with␈α_a␈α_two-way␈α_TV␈α_and
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hradio␈α→link.␈α→A␈α→simple␈α→program␈α→to␈α→guide␈α→the␈α→vehicle␈α_to␈α_follow␈α_a
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hwhite␈α≤line␈α≠like␈α≠that␈α≠in␈α≠a␈α≠road␈α≠has␈α≠been␈α≠successfully␈α≠checked
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hout,␈α~and␈α~programs␈α→for␈α→determining␈α→the␈α→course␈α→of␈α→the␈α→road␈α→and
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hdetecting␈α0cars␈α0and␈α/other␈α/obstacles␈α/are␈α/being␈α/developed.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HHowever,␈α∨before␈α∨computer␈α∨controlled␈α∨cars␈α∨become␈α∨a␈α≡reality␈α≡a
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hmuch␈α∪larger␈α∪scale␈α∪effort␈α∪will␈α∪have␈α∪to␈α∪be␈α∪made.
␈↓ ↓H

␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`The␈α≡nature␈α≡and␈α≡extent␈α≡of␈α≥this␈α≥effort␈α≥are␈α≥not␈α≥easy␈α≥to
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hforsee␈α_yet.␈α_We␈α_are␈α_far␈α_from␈α_having␈α_exhausted␈α↔the␈α↔possibilities
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hof␈α_our␈α_present␈α_equipment,␈α_but␈α_eventually␈α_the␈α_radio␈α_link␈α↔to␈α↔the
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcomputer␈α∀will␈α∀have␈α∀to␈α∀be␈α∀replaced␈α∀by␈α∀a␈α∀computer␈α∀in␈α∀the␈α∪vehicle,
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hand␈α_television␈α_equipment␈α_capable␈α_of␈α_seeing␈α_better␈α_into␈α↔shadows
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hin␈α∃the␈α∀presence␈α∀of␈α∀bright␈α∀areas␈α∀will␈α∀be␈α∀required.␈α∀We␈α∀need␈α∀to␈α∀be
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hable␈α≥to␈α≥identify␈α≥many␈α≥different␈α≥types␈α≥of␈α≥objects␈α≥on␈α≥the␈α≤road
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hsuch␈α#as:␈α#persons,␈α#vehicles,␈α#animals,␈α#traffic␈α#police,␈α#shadows,
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hpieces␈α∨of␈α∨paper,␈α∨cardboard␈α∨boxes,␈α∨objects␈α∨that␈α∨have␈α∨dropped
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hfrom␈α"vehicles,␈α"traffic␈α"signs␈α"and␈α"other␈α"signals,␈α!intersections,
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hhouse␈α≠numbers,␈α≠and␈α≠other␈α≠information␈α~required␈α~for␈α~navigation.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HIt␈α≥will␈α≥have␈α≤to␈α≤be␈α≤equipped␈α≤with␈α≤programs␈α≤to␈α≤recognize␈α≤and
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hdeal␈α→with␈α→a␈α→variety␈α→of␈α_emergency␈α_conditions.␈α_It␈α_will␈α_surely␈α_be
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hpossible␈α%to␈α%make␈α%it␈α%better␈α%at␈α$this␈α$than␈α$humans␈α$since␈α$its
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hattention␈α≠won't␈α~lapse,␈α~it␈α~can␈α~sense␈α~the␈α~mechanical␈α~condition␈α~of
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthe␈α∪car␈α∪continuously,␈α∪and␈α∪it␈α∪can␈α∪look␈α∪to␈α∪the␈α∪side,␈α∪underneath␈α∪the
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcar,␈α∪and␈α∪behind␈α∪every␈α∪second.
␈↓ ↓H

␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`The␈α→most␈α→intricate␈α→single␈α→problem␈α_is␈α_the␈α_visual␈α_pattern
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hrecognition.
␈↓ ↓H

␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`5.␈α∪Testing.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`After␈α%the␈α$required␈α$performance␈α$is␈α$demonstrated␈α$and
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hbefore␈α≤the␈α≤system␈α≠can␈α≠be␈α≠trusted␈α≠without␈α≠a␈α≠human␈α≠driver␈α≠an
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hextensive␈α_testing␈α_program␈α_is␈α_required.␈α_To␈α↔demonstrate␈α↔that␈α↔the
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hsystem␈α→is␈α→five␈α→times␈α→safer␈α→than␈α_a␈α_human␈α_driver␈α_approximately
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓H25,000␈α'automobile␈α'years␈α'will␈α&be␈α&required.␈α&This␈α&might␈α&be
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hreduced␈α%somewhat␈α%by␈α%concentrating␈α$testing␈α$on␈α$situations␈α$in
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hwhich␈α∃humans␈α∃make␈α∃most␈α∃of␈α∀their␈α∀fatal␈α∀mistakes,␈α∀but␈α∀we␈α∀would
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hstill␈α∀need␈α∀to␈α∀be␈α∀sure␈α∀that␈α∀situations␈α∀in␈α∀which␈α∀the␈α∀program␈α∀made
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hfatal␈α&blunders␈α&peculiar␈α&to␈α&the␈α%computer␈α%system␈α%were␈α%rare
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Henough.␈α∃Developments␈α∃in␈α∀the␈α∀mathematical␈α∀theory␈α∀of␈α∀computation
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hmay␈α∨permit␈α∨getting␈α∨rid␈α∨of␈α∨ordinary␈α∨programming␈α≡errors␈α≡and
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hproving␈α_that␈α_they␈α_are␈α_absent,␈α_but␈α_possible␈α_inadequacies␈α↔in␈α↔the
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Halgorithms␈α∪themselves␈α∪can␈α∪only␈α∪be␈α∪obviated␈α∪by␈α∪testing.
␈↓ ↓H

␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`6.␈α∪Public␈α∪acceptance.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`Automobiles␈α2without␈α1qualified␈α1human␈α1drivers␈α1will
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hrequire␈α≠changes␈α≠in␈α~the␈α~law.␈α~Fortunately,␈α~testing␈α~such␈α~systems
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hwith␈α#a␈α#driver␈α#present␈α#to␈α"take␈α"over␈α"if␈α"necessary␈α"does␈α"not.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HMoreover,␈α≠computer␈α≠driven␈α≠cars␈α≠will␈α≠not␈α≠be␈α≠able␈α≠to␈α≠obey␈α~oral
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hinstructions␈α∀from␈α∀policemen␈α∀,␈α∀so␈α∀a␈α∀digital␈α∀system␈α∪will␈α∪have␈α∪to␈α∪be
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hdeveloped.␈α≡A␈α≡general␈α≥resistance␈α≥to␈α≥technological␈α≥innovation␈α≥on
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthe␈α∀part␈α∀of␈α∀the␈α∀literary␈α∀culture␈α∪will␈α∪have␈α∪to␈α∪be␈α∪overcome,␈α∪but␈α∪it
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hseems␈α→to␈α→me␈α→that␈α→after␈α→the␈α→test␈α→phase␈α→the␈α→advantages␈α→will␈α_be
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hclear␈α∪enough␈α∪so␈α∪that␈α∪this␈α∪will␈α∪not␈α∪be␈α∪difficult.
␈↓ ↓H

␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`7.␈α∪Support␈α∪for␈α∪research␈α∪and␈α∪development.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`The␈α∨development␈α∨of␈α≡computer␈α≡controlled␈α≡cars␈α≡will␈α≡cost
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hhundreds␈α∃of␈α∃milliions␈α∃of␈α∃dollars.␈α∃A␈α∃computer␈α∀program␈α∀capable␈α∀of
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hreliably␈α→taking␈α→care␈α→of␈α→all␈α→the␈α→contingencies␈α→that␈α→can␈α_arise␈α_in
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hdriving␈α a␈α∨car␈α∨will␈α∨have␈α∨to␈α∨be␈α∨more␈α∨complex␈α∨than␈α∨any␈α∨ever
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hwritten,␈α6and␈α6adequate␈α5testing␈α5will␈α5require␈α5a␈α5complex
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Horganization.␈α≠Fortunately,␈α~The␈α~commitment␈α~of␈α~large␈α~amounts␈α~of
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hmoney␈α∃will␈α∀be␈α∀required␈α∀only␈α∀after␈α∀spectacular␈α∀though␈α∀unreliable
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hperformance␈α∀will␈α∀have␈α∀been␈α∀demonstrated.␈α∀So␈α∀far␈α∪as␈α∪I␈α∪know,␈α∪the
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HStanford␈α_Artificial␈α_Intelligence␈α_Project␈α↔is␈α↔the␈α↔only␈α↔organization
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hnow␈α∃working␈α∃on␈α∃computer␈α∃control␈α∃of␈α∃a␈α∀vehicle␈α∀using␈α∀vision.␈α∀This
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hwork␈α-is␈α-part␈α-of␈α-a␈α-basic␈α-research␈α-project␈α,on␈α,artificial
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hintelligence␈α≤supported␈α≤by␈α≠the␈α≠Department␈α≠of␈α≠Defense.␈α≠Even␈α≠at
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthe␈α≡present␈α≡stage␈α≡of␈α≥the␈α≥work,␈α≥other␈α≥projects␈α≥are␈α≥needed␈α≥to
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hsecure␈α≥an␈α≥adequate␈α≥diversity␈α≥of␈α≥approach.␈α≥While␈α≤considerable
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hadditional␈α∨progress␈α∨will␈α∨certainly␈α∨be␈α≡made␈α≡with␈α≡the␈α≡present
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hsupport,␈α⊗even␈α⊗a␈α⊗prototype␈α⊗will␈α⊗require␈α⊗more␈α⊗money␈α⊗than␈α∃is␈α∃now
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Havailable.
␈↓ ↓H

␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`Fortunately,␈α≤this␈α≤problem␈α≤is␈α≠within␈α≠the␈α≠jurisdiction␈α≠of
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthe␈α∀Department␈α∀of␈α∪Transportation.␈α∪The␈α∪automobile␈α∪companies␈α∪and
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthe␈α∨computer␈α∨companies␈α∨also␈α∨might␈α∨be␈α∨expected␈α∨to␈α∨help,␈α∨but
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Htheir␈α∀past␈α∀record␈α∪of␈α∪seeing␈α∪beyond␈α∪the␈α∪ends␈α∪of␈α∪their␈α∪noses␈α∪is␈α∪not
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hencouraging.␈α↔Because␈α↔the␈α↔programming␈α↔is␈α⊗the␈α⊗pacing␈α⊗item,␈α⊗more
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hsupport␈α∃at␈α∃this␈α∃time␈α∃will␈α∃hasten␈α∃the␈α∀day␈α∀when␈α∀computer␈α∀control
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hof␈α≡cars␈α≡is␈α≡achieved,␈α≡but␈α≡the␈α≡possibilities␈α≡will␈α≥be␈α≥much␈α≥more
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hobvious␈α#in␈α#five␈α#years␈α#with␈α#the␈α#advances␈α#in␈α#hardware␈α#and
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hprogramming␈α∪that␈α∪are␈α∪already␈α∪taking␈α∪place␈α∪for␈α∪other␈α∪reasons.
␈↓ ↓H

␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`Finally,␈α we␈α would␈α like␈α to␈α deal␈α with␈α∨some␈α∨arguments
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthat␈α"might␈α"be␈α"raised␈α"against␈α"supporting␈α!research␈α!aimed␈α!at
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcomputer-controlled␈α∪cars:
␈↓ ↓H

␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`1.␈α~Cars␈α~must␈α~be␈α~done␈α~away␈α~with␈α~because␈α~they␈α~produce
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hsmog,␈α∨require␈α∨too␈α∨much␈α∨space,␈α∨and␈α∨use␈α∨up␈α∨too␈α≡much␈α≡natural
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hresources.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`We␈α↔believe␈α↔the␈α↔smog␈α↔devices␈α↔will␈α↔eventually␈α↔be␈α⊗made␈α⊗to
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hwork␈α_well,␈α_or␈α_if␈α_not,␈α_another␈α_form␈α↔of␈α↔propulsion␈α↔can␈α↔be␈α↔found.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓HComputer␈α∀controlled␈α∀cars␈α∀will␈α∀require␈α∀less␈α∀space␈α∀than␈α∀equivalent
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hpresent␈α_cars␈α_because␈α_they␈α_can␈α↔go␈α↔faster␈α↔and␈α↔closer␈α↔together␈α↔on
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hstreets,␈α&roads␈α&and␈α%freeways,␈α%because␈α%they␈α%can␈α%park␈α%at␈α%a
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hdistance␈α≡from␈α≡a␈α≡place␈α≡where␈α≡they␈α≡discharge␈α≡passengers,␈α≡and
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hbecause␈α∀a␈α∀computer␈α∀driven␈α∀car␈α∀can␈α∀be␈α∪shared␈α∪more␈α∪easily␈α∪than␈α∪a
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hconventional␈α#car.␈α#If␈α#hydrocarbon␈α#fuel␈α#runs␈α#out␈α"and␈α"is␈α"still
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hrequired␈α&for␈α&cars,␈α&then␈α&with␈α&nuclear␈α&energy,␈α&the␈α%burning
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hreaction␈α≡can␈α≡be␈α≡driven␈α≡backwards␈α≡and␈α≡fuel␈α≡synthesized␈α≡from
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hcarbon␈α∪dioxide␈α∪and␈α∪water.
␈↓ ↓H

␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`2.␈α∪A␈α∪simpler␈α∪scheme␈α∪of␈α∪automatic␈α∪control␈α∪is␈α∪preferable.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`The␈α&buried␈α&cable␈α&and␈α&other␈α&simple␈α&schemes␈α%do␈α%not
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hincrease␈α∀human␈α∀freedom␈α∀and␈α∀convenience.␈α∀They␈α∀only␈α∀permit␈α∀us␈α∪to
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Huse␈α%the␈α%freeways␈α%a␈α%bit␈α%more␈α%efficiently.␈α$Because␈α$of␈α$their
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hinability␈α to␈α detect␈α dogs,␈α∨children,␈α∨potholes,␈α∨and␈α∨objects␈α∨that
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hhave␈α→fallen␈α→from␈α→trucks␈α→they␈α→may␈α→require␈α→unrealizable␈α_control
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hof␈α∪access␈α∪to␈α∪the␈α∪highway␈α∪in␈α∪order␈α∪to␈α∪achieve␈α∪safety.
␈↓ ↓H

␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`3.␈α+Some␈α+form␈α+of␈α+automated␈α+mass␈α*transportation␈α*is
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hobviously␈α∪better.
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ α`The␈α≠automobile␈α≠can␈α≠go␈α≠point␈α≠to␈α≠point␈α≠in␈α≠areas␈α≠of␈α~both
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hlow␈α⊗and␈α⊗high␈α⊗density.␈α⊗We␈α⊗believe␈α⊗that␈α∃these␈α∃advantages␈α∃should
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hnot␈α'and␈α'will␈α'not␈α'voluntarily␈α'be␈α'given␈α'up.␈α'We␈α&favor␈α&the
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hdevelopment␈α≠of␈α~improved␈α~mass␈α~transportation,␈α~but␈α~predict␈α~that
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hthe␈α↔automobile␈α↔will␈α↔be␈α↔given␈α⊗up␈α⊗only␈α⊗for␈α⊗something␈α⊗that␈α⊗works
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hbetter␈α≥in␈α≥all␈α≥ways␈α≥such␈α≥as␈α≥an␈α≥individual␈α≤computer␈α≤controlled
␈↓ ↓H
␈↓ ↓Hflying␈α∪machine␈α∪capable␈α∪of␈α∪point␈α∪to␈α∪point␈α∪transportation.
␈↓ ↓H